Annonated Bibliography Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Annonated Bibliography - Essay Example The conclusive issues stated in the articles chosen below are not dependent on personal feelings or prejudice. The articles contain knowledge that has been presented after critical examination of the available facts with no potential for discrepancies. It is quite obvious that the knowledge contained therein exists independently. The articles were chosen specifically due to the fact that they contain knowledge that is factual just like any objective knowledge. The information is quite independent that even after being researched from various authors, the deduction is independent on any prejudice or personal feelings. It is a reality that cancer exists and is caused by all the causes stated in the documents. The palliative care for patients suffering from the various types of cancer is quite explicit and almost similar. Almost all the authors have the same ideas about cancer as a family health concern and its significance to the nursing profession. The first article is authored by the Registered Nurses Association of Ontario who state that environmental pollution can lead to cancer giving an excellent reason why they believe so (RNAO 2008). Echoing these sentiments is the Center for Disease Control; they also go further giving explicit explanations and evidences on the same (CDC 2012). These among the many articles utilized in this research fulfill the characteristics of objective articles on cancer. Nursing has been viewed as more of a female suited kind of profession, a good reason why it is dominated by females. According to Converse (2010), feminism has both negative and positive effects in nursing. Apparently, this profession being a potent and easy target for feminist attacks, it became quite ambivalent with the group. This led to a few changes in the profession. The author looks at feminism in terms of power which serves as an easy source of information. A good example stated by the author is on the

Artifical hydration in pallitiaive care Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 5000 words

Artifical hydration in pallitiaive care - Essay Example 2). The palliative care in the UK is grounded on three developmental stages that are significant in comprehending the modern palliative care setting. The initial phase of evolution is concerned with the creation of a haven for dying individuals and giving of terminal care. The second level of advancement is the growth of contemporary hospice lobby. The last stage concentrates on the change from hospice to palliative care (Have & Janssens 2001, p. 85-86). As argued by Have & Janssens (2001), in the UK, palliative care is mostly provided to patients suffering from cancer although other patients that have terminal illnesses like Alzheimer’s disease, Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS), Parkinson’s disease, and advanced heart disease among other conditions that cannot be cured also qualify for the care (p.94). The national umbrella organisation, that facilitates palliative care in the UK, are NCPC (National Council for Palliative Care) and SPPC (Scottish Partnership for Palliative Care). This paper will discuss the artificial hydration in palliative care, its advantages and disadvantages and significance for the patient and end of life care. The discussion revolves around a community setting in the UK. The community palliative care teams provide palliative care in the rural areas. Most of the patients attended to in the community are those that decided to die at home. The services given receive funding from individua l charitable bodies and others by the National Health Service (NHS) (Have & Janssens 2001, p. 94). The artificial hydration in palliative care refers to the administration of fluids into the patient’s body through parenteral routes, nasogastric tube, gastrostomy and nasojejunostomy as a key necessity for nourishment. The truth is that artificial feeding cannot match the natural way of eating through the mouth

Impact Of Barriers To Entry On Market Strategy

Impact Of Barriers To Entry On Market Strategy Purpose The purpose of this paper is to review previous research and to propose a model for the impact of barriers to entry on the market strategy of an entrant firm, where product/market scope and product differentiation are central strategy components. The paper asks, what is the impact of barriers on market strategies of entrants? Are early and late entrants affected in different ways? Design/methodology/approach A model and propositions are developed-based on a review of previous research. The model applies the contingency perspective and company cases exemplify the model. Findings It is proposed that a firm that enters a market late and faces extensive barriers would choose a broader product/market scope and differentiate its products to a larger extent than an early entrant. It is also proposed that incumbents market strategies indirectly affect the market strategy of an entrant firm as incumbents market strategies interact with barriers, and the effects are due to entry timing. Research limitations/implications The study contributes theoretically as it extends current knowledge of the impact of barriers to entry on strategy. Management of entrant firms are advised to strive for a fit between barriers and market strategy and consider the propositions. Originality/value The model and the propositions concern barrier effects on two key components of the nmrket strategy of an entrant firm: product/market scope and product differentiation. Another important value is that the model accounts for interactions between incumbent strategies and harriers to entry, and effects on the market strategy of an entrant firm. Keywords Market entry, Marketing strategy, Competitors Paper type Literature review Introduction Barriers to entry have been a popular field of research since the seminal work of Bain (1956). Barriers are obstacles preventing entrant firms from being established in a particular market (Porter, 1980). However, despite the practical and theoretical importance of the matter, we still have only limited understanding of the impact of barriers on the market strategy of an entrant firm. A deeper empirical exploration of the issue calls for a reliable model that clarifies expected relationships. An empirical example is the comprehensive work that takes place within the European Union in order to create unified rules for international competition and reduce the impact of barriers originating from government regulations. Industries such as telecommunications are subject to these unification processes (Pehrsson, 2001). A general aim is to encourage the establishment of both domestic competitors and competitors stemming from other countries (Karlsson, 1998). But what is the expected impact of barriers on market strategies of entrants? Are early and late entrants affected in different ways? In theoretical terms, we need further knowledge of a relation between conditions external to the firm and the firm strategy, and, therefore, application of the contingency perspective (Hambrick, 1983; Peteraf and Reed, 2007) is appropriate. The central view is that a fit between external conditions and firm strategy provides a basis for competitive advantage and high performance (Miller, 1996). According to the review by Peteraf and Reed (2007), an earlier central criticism of contingency theory was that contingency research was reductionist (Meyer et aL, 1993), and empirical models did not account for the impact of interactions among central elements. However, recent studies on internal alignment focus on interaction effects among firm attributes and impact on firm performance (Kauffman, 1993; Levinthal, 1997). Yet, we still have very limited knowledge of interactions among external conditions and the impact on firm strategy. This paper applies the contingency perspective and focuses on the impact of barriers to entry on the market strategy of early and late entrants. The purpose is to review previous research and to propose a model for the impact of barriers on strategy where product/market scope and product differentiation are central strategy components. The resulting model addresses external firm conditions and proposes direct effects of exogenous and endogenous barriers and indirect effects of incumbents market strategies. These constitute the frame for barriers that originate from incumbents behavior, and incumbent strategies assumingly interact with barriers to entry. Although, for example, the performance impact of barriers to entry has been widely investigated (Marsh, 1998), only a few studies have focused on the impact on the market strategy of entrant firms. Robinson and McI)ougall (2001) studied entrants and found that the negative performance effects of three barriers (scale effects, capital need, and product differentiation) were particularly important when the product/market scope was narrow. Further, Pehrsson (2001) observed that deregulation in the telecommunications industry caused adjustments of the product/market scope of market entrants. Finally, Han et a!. (2001) and Salavou et at. (2004) found that a need for capital stimulated the mnovativeness and product differentiation of entrants. We therefore need to continue to study the impact of barriers on the product/market scope and product differentiation of market entrants. More precisely, there is a lack of knowledge of direct and indirect barrier effects on entrants product/market scope and product differentiation. The fact that competitors may constitute a primary source of barriers has largely been neglected, and incumbents market strategies most probably indirectly affect the strategy of an entrant firm. Competitors are crucial here as they demonstrate certain market strategies and thereby create customer loyalties and other barriers (Porter, 1980). Also, the literature indicates that the effects are due to entry timing Karakaya and Stahl, 1989), and the effects on the strategy of an early entrant may not be the same as those for a late entrant. The paper is organized in this way: In Section 2, I review previous research on barriers to entry and the strategy impact of barriers; in Section 3, I present the model and propositions about relationships in the model; Section 4 presents illustrative company cases; conclusions and implications follow in Section 5. Literature review This section of the paper first presents important exogenous and endogenous barriers to entry that have been observed by scholars. The section then reviews previous studies on the impact of barriers on product/market scope and product differentiation, and the impact on entry timing. Important barriers to entry A barrier to entry can be categorized as either exogenous or endogenous (Shepherd, 1979). Exogenous barriers are those that are embedded in the underlying market conditions and, in principle, firms are not able to control exogenous barriers. On the contrary, endogenous barriers are created by the established firms through their market strategies and their competitive behavior and are thus based on incumbents reactions to new entrants efforts to become established. However, Gable ci a!. (1995) observed that frequently the barrier types are mutually reinforcing, and they may be difficult to interpret. Table I lists important barriers to entry that have been observed in the literature, with studies cited by author and publication date. As regards the exogenous barriers, incumbents cost advantages are considered important by several authors (Gable et al., 1995; Han et al., 2001). This barrier means that incumbents may possess absolute or variable cost advantages, forcing the entrant firm to achieve scale effects and low costs. Incumbents product differentiation (Pehrsson, 2004; Schlegelmilch and Ambos, 2004) is another important barrier as it creates loyalties and relations among buyers and established sellers, and accompanying obstacles for the entrant trying to access customers Gohansson and Elg, 2002). Furthermore, the extensive need for capital in order to be firmly established in a market is an important exogeneous barrier emphasized by many authors (flarrigan, 1981; Siegfried and Evans, 1994), and the importance is also valid for customers switching costs (Gruca and Sudharshan, 1995; Karakaya and Stahl, 1989). This barrier is due to the costs that any potential customer faces trying to switch from one supplier to another. For example, costs may be allocated to employee retraining or changes in product design. Available distribution channels might not be anticipated by the entrant firm, or they may be controlled by competitors, creating customer access obstacles (Han el al., 2001; Pehrsson, 2004). Other barriers may include incumbents brand loyalty Q Endogenous barriers are created by the competitive behavior of incumbent firms in accordance with their market strategies. Important endogenous barriers may originate from excess capacity. This is generally accompanied by increased advertising or promotional activity (Demsetz, 1982; Gable el aL, 1995) or pre-emptive pricing resulting in price competition (Guiltinnan and Gundlach, 1996; Simon, 2005). T A B L E It is thus appropriate to view endogenous barriers as established firms reaction to new entrants (Karakaya and Stahl, 1989; Yip, 1982). In fact, incumbents may deter the entry of new comers simply by creating expectations of fear for the incumbents post-entry reaction (Karakaya and Stahl, 1989). However, Gable et a!. (1995) found that exogenous and endogenous barriers are mutually reinforcing. They studied entry barriers in retailing and found that incumbents frequently increased advertising and sales promotion when reacting to market entrants. These measures enhanced the degree of product and service differentiation attributed to the incumbent, while the measures also provided a method for an existing retailer to increase the costs of entry to a potential competitor. The observed endogenous barriers of increased advertising and sales promotion thus reinforce the exogenous barriers of capital need and product differentiation. Further, a number of studies (Karakaya, 2002; Karakaya and Kerin, 2007; Karakaya and Stahl, 1989; Siegfried and Evans, 1994) have explored the relative importance of individual barriers. Karakaya (2002) examined the importance of 25 potential barriers to entry in industrial markets. The majority of the executives in the survey considered the most important barriers to be incumbents cost advantages and the need for capital to enter markets. The impact of barriers on strategy Researchers have studied the impact of barriers to entry on two strategy components, namely product/market scope (Bonardi, 1999; Delmas and Tokat, 2005; Haveman, 1993; Pehrsson, 2001, 2007; Robinson and McDougall, 2001), and product differentiation (Delmas ci at, 2007; Russo, 2001; Schlegelmilch and Ambos, 2004) including innovativeness (Han ci at, 2001; Salavou ci at, 2004). Table TI summarizes key findings of the studies of strategies of market entrants and incumbents. As regards product/market scope, Pehrsson (2007) studied perceptions of expansion barriers in 191 subsidiaries of incumbent Swedish manufacturing firms in Germany, the United States and the UK. I-Ic found that the impact of balTiers was due to the breadth of the product/market scope of the firms. Hence, obstacles to access customers affect performance in a negative way if the firm has a narrow product/market scope. One reason why the obstacles are not significant if the scope is broad may be that different customer types and delivered products in this context are associated with more degrees of freedom in choosing customers. Problems in accessing a certain customer type may thus be balanced against limited problems regarding other types. Robinson and McDougall (2001) established a similar pattern. They studied the moderating effect of product/market breadth on the relationship between entry barriers and performance of 115 new ventures. Three barriers were closely studied: economies of scale, capital need, and product differentiation, It was found that the negative effect of capital need on return Ofl sales was smaller for ventures pursuing a broad scope. Further, the negative effects of all barriers were smaller for broad-scope ventures as regards shareholder wealth. Government policy changes manifested by, for example, deregulation or other institutional changes stimulate adjustments of the product/market scope of incumbents (Bonardi, 1999; Delmas and Tokat, 2005; Haveman, 1993; Pehrsson, 2001). Haveman (1993) showed that many firms in the savings and loans industry had expanded into new areas as a result of deregulation. Further, Pehrsson (2001) found that choices of customers made by both incumbents and entrant firms followed deregulations in the British and Swedish telecommunications industries. As regards the product differentiation component of market strategy, Han el al. (2001) and Salavou et al. (2004) found that market entrants innovativeness reduced the impact of capital need. A finns innovativeness reflects its way of pursuing product differentiation relative to competitors (Kustin, 2004). The literature also addresses changes in barriers to entry due to deregulation and their effects on rncuinbents differentiation Dehnas el aL, 2007; Russo, 2001; Schlegelmilch and Ambos, 2004). Delmas et a!. (2007) observed a variety of differentiation efforts in response to deregulation in the US electric utility industry, while Schlegelmilch and Ambos (2004) studied strategic options in such industries. In particular, Russo (2001) found that technology differentiation was a common effect of deregulation in the utility industry. Delmas et a!. (2007) advocate that, in fact, differentiation is common in industries that is subject to deregulation. The impact of barriers on entry timing Makadok (998) and Pehrsson (2004) underscore that the entry timing advantages of first- and early-movers seem to be resistant to erosion by the entry of additional competitors in a market. Once a new competitor has entered the market, it is difficult to match the performance of the incumbents due to extensive customer loyalties established previously. For the entrant firm this creates severe obstacles to customer access. Karakaya and Stahl (1989) studied the effects of barriers on the timing of market entry of 49 firms delivering industrial goods and consumer goods. The researchers particularly found that switching costs of potential customers is perceived as more important for late entry than early entry in both industrial goods and consumer goods markets. This finding supports the notion that late market entrants will face extensive obstacles to access customers due to previous loyalties between sellers and buyers. A model of the impact of entry barriers on strategy The model presented in this section proposes relationships between barriers to entry, incumbents market strategies and the market strategy of an entrant firm (Figure 1). The model applies the contingency perspective Hambrick, 1983; Peteraf and Reed, 2007) and proposes that an entrant firms market strategy is contingent on the external conditions of barriers to entry (P12 in Figure 1). It is also assumed that competitors constitute a main source of barriers; therefore, the model proposes indirect effects and interactions between incumbents market strategies and barriers (P3). Further, entry timing is important; the propositions suggest that strategies of early and late entrants differ. This section first defines the key concepts of the model and continues with motivations and presentations of the propositions. The concepts in the model The term barriers to entry stems from industrial organization literature and refers to obstacles that firms have to face when they try to establish themselves in a market (Porter, 1.980). Advantages of incumbent firms established earlier correspond to the extent to which the incumbents can raise their prices above a theoretical equilibrium without attracting other firms to enter the market (Bain, 1956). Barriers are exogenous or endogenous and are mutually reinforcing (see the literature review above). Entrant firms and incumbents demonstrate certain market strategies. Miller (1987) found that the dominant content components of strategy were product/market scope, product innovation, differentiation, and cost control. Product/market scope corresponds to the breadth of business activities and is manifested by the breadth of the range of product types and customer types. As product innovation is a way of differentiating the product in relation to competing products, I include innovation in product differentiation (Kustin, 2004). Further, as cost control is an ingredient of price, and customers are generally more concerned with prices than firm costs, prices are frequently subject to differentiation (Porter, 1980). rrherefore product differentiation in the model also includes pricing. However, product differentiation does not only refer to the physical product core. Usunier (1993) suggests that services linked to products such as after-sales services are central to differentiation, and Pehrsson (2006) further emphasizes flexibility attributes. Th attributes combine with other attributes in order to meet individual customer needs, and include, for example, solutions to customer problems and distribution features. Differentiating products in relation to products of competitors may thus give the firm competitive advantages. In essence, Porter (1980) convincingly argues that differentiation is a way of creating layers of insulation against competitive warfare and increases the odds of achieving high financial performance. Direct effects of barriers to entry Pehrsson (2007) and Robinson and McI)ougall (2001) found that the effects of barriers were less severe if the product/market scope of a market entrant was broad. Based on the findings, the researchers argue that product/market breadth of market entrants generally moderates the relationship between entry barriers and performance. Theoretically, a market entrant that has to face extensive barriers to entry would prefer a broad product/market scope. In that way, the entrant may be able to exploit the degrees of freedom that accompany the broad scope, and balance obstacles in accessing a certain customer type against obstacles relating to other types. However, research has shown that late market entrants tend to be exposed to more comprehensive barriers than early entrants (Makadok, 1998; Pehrsson, 2004). In particular, customer loyalties and customers switching costs (Karakaya and Stahl, 1989) constitute key competitive advantages of early entrants. A late market entrant would, therefore, theoretically have to face more severe obstacles in trying to access customers than would an early entrant: P1. A firm that enters a market late and has to face extensive barriers will chxse a broader product/market scope than an early entrant. In accordance with the results of Han el at (2001) and Salavou el at. (2004), market entrants frequently use product innovations to overcome market entry barriers. As innovativeness manifests product differentiation, it is logical to propose that a market entrant may use product differentiation in order to respond to barriers, and that comprehensive differentiation efforts follow extensive barriers. As a late entrant is theoretically exposed to more extensive barriers than an early entrant, this leads to the second proposition: P2. A firm that enters a market late and has to face extensive barriers will differentiate its products to a larger extent than an early entrant. Indirect effects of barriers to entry P1 and P2 do not pay attention to indirect effects, crucial interactions among barriers to entry and other important conditions external to the entrant firm. However, we can expect that barriers interact with incumbents market strategies. This expectation relies on the necessity of observing competitors as they pursue certain market strategies, and are able to create customer loyalties and other barriers (Porter, 1980). If we pay attention to incumbents, a strategy that promotes the development of brand loyalty, for example, focuses on a factor that create barriers (Krouse, 1984). Further, entry timing advantages of first- and early-movers (Makadok, 1998; Pehrsson, 2004) generally stem from the firms opportunities to penetrate potential customers, start to differentiate products, and develop customer relationships. If successful, the customer relationships and accompanying loyalties become effective barriers to competition. Theoretic-ally, late entrants therefore have difficulty matching the performance of the early entrants. We may therefore propose that the interaction affects early and late entrants in different ways: P3. Incumbents market strategies indirectly affect the market strategy of an entrant firm as incumbents market strategies interact with barriers to entry. The effects are different for early and late entrants. Illustrative cases Deregulation and unification of rules pertaining to firms operating telecommunications networks caused operators to reconsider their market strategies in Europe (Pehrsson, 2001). Unlike many other European countries, Sweden has never legalized a monopoly for the establishment of telecommunications networks or for the offering of services. However, Televerket (the Swedish public telecommunications administration) historically had a monopoly-like hold on many sectors of the market. This organization was converted in 1993 into a company group with a parent fIrm, Telia. As there are no regulations protecting Swedish interests or restricting foreign operators from establishing themselves in the country, many firms have entered the market. Any firm with a desire to enter the market will have to face the barrier of capital need in terms of the arrangement of infrastructure. For example, Tele2 entered the market early and addressed this need for capital by cooperating with the Swedish State Rail Administration. The background for Kinneviks establishment of Tele2 is that Kinnevik had gained experience from mobile telephony in the USA (NetCom Systems, 1994). Parallel with these activities, preparations began within traditional telecommunications for voice and data in the 1980s. A gateway for data traffic was opened in 1986, and in 1989 an agreement was concluded with the Swedish State Rail Administration for joint investments in a fiber optic network. Tele2 was formed in 1987 with the intention to offer stationary telephony primarily to households based on low prices. When the deregulation of the telecommunications market accelerated in 1993, Tele2 was able to act fast and reached second place after the incumbent, Telia. I)otcom l)ata Telecommunications entered the Swedish market late and had to face the extensive barriers caused by the dominance of the incumbent and early entrants. By the end of the 1990s, Dotcom was the only operator in the Swedish market with telecommunications operations that were not part of the original corporate core business Dotcom Data Telecommunications, 1995). The product/market scope was dominated by local data networks and included also stationary telephony, leased lines, office exchanges, extensive communications systems, support systems and so on. Middle-sized companies, large companies, and public administrations were the main target groups. In sum, the case of Dotcom Data Telecommunications illustrates P1. The firm was exposed to extensive barriers due to the firms late market entry and chose a broad product/market scope. In that way, the firm was able to exploit the degrees of freedom that accompanied the broad scope, and balance obstacles in accessing a certain customer type against obstacles regarding other types. Further, Dotcom Data Telecommunications tried to avoid price competition and, instead, strived for long-term customer relationships. As there were six phases of the delivery chain (analysis of needs, systems design, installation, education, service, and financing) there were many options to conduct product differentiation. A comparison with the limited low-price differentiation of Tele2 illustrates P2. However, in accordance with P3, both entrants had to face the barriers caused by the incumbents cTelias) strategy of keeping its market dominance and loyal customers. Conclusions and implications Despite the limitation that there may be more important external conditions beyond incumbents market strategies that interact with barriers to entry, we are now able to conclude the a firm that enters a market late and has to face extensive barriers probably would chxse a broader product/market scope and differentiate its products to a larger extent than an earlier entrant. Also, it is proposed that incumbents market strategies indirectly affect the market strategy of an entrant firm as incumbents market strategies interact with barriers, where the effects are due to entry timing. In sum, the model extends our knowledge as it accounts for the direct impact of barriers to entry on product/market scope and product differentiation, and specifies central conditions external to the entrant firm. Also, the model accounts for entry timing effects. In accordance with the contingency perspective management of entrant firms would be advised to strive for a fit between barriers to entry and market strategy and thereby bear in mind the proposals put forward in this paper. Of importance are not only direct effects of barriers on product/market scope and product differentiation, but also the way incumbent strategies interact with balTiers. It would also be advisable for each firm to evaluate the relative importance of barriers and acknowledge that a late entry is generally accompanied by more extensive barriers than an early entry. Further, as exogenous barriers and endogenous barriers are often mutually reinforcing, attention needs to be paid to combined effects. Further empirical research should be conducted in terms of applying the model developed in this paper. A suggestion for future research is to explore how management perceives barriers to entry, and how this perception contributes to the emergence and sustainability of competitive advantage. Also, it would be interesting to explore managerial knowledge of barriers in early and late phases of market entry.

How Toy Story Helps Children Navigate Technology Essay -- Technology

Technology is rapidly growing â€Å"to infinity and beyond† from games to cars, modern technology fully encompasses our daily lives leaving society helpless without it. In the early 90’s, society knows little of how much this new technology eventually influences their children’s lives, so parents portray outwardly no problems with having companies heavily advertising new electronic products to children. The results change the world. Now, technology intertwines with the fast-paced lives of the society, leaving some frustrated parents finding it difficult on ways to teach their children to balance both modern technology and manual labor. Wisely, parents start to rely on the first thing that originally got them into them mess - the magical world of Pixar. The original Toy Story focuses on the societal view of the celebration towards the advancement of technology during the time the movie releases in 1995, which is what society needs at that time. However, by Toy St ory 3(2010), young adults actively disengage in the usage of the consumerism for the latest-and-greatest technology, so the tone of the movie sequel changes. Toy Story 3 actively encourages youth to enjoy the makings of the past without overlooking the new technological advancements. Toy Story, one of the first cartoon using the new animation technology, highlights one boy’s (Andy’s) first experience with technology, Buzz Lightyear, the most popular and advanced toy at that time. Andy is quickly amazed at the impressive high-tech features of Buzz and excited about the technology of Buzz. Andy starts losing his love for his old manual toys like Woody; Woody fears that Buzz is the new favorite toy in Andy’s life. At this time, the society starts to bring the technology into th... ...etc.) Back in 1995 when companies start releasing technology like computers, cell phones, and media players to the general public, Toy Story tries to encourage, introduce, and make technology interesting for kids; allowing them not to be afraid of the inevitable surge of technological advancements late 90s-early 2000s. In today’s modern-life, there is no huge need of encouragement for people to use the technology; although, there is a need to remind society that don’t over let technology overrun your life no matter how useful. Works Cited O'Neill, Charles A. "The Language of Advertising." The Contemporary Reader. By Gary Goshgarian. 9th ed. New York: Pearson Longman, 2008. 146-52. Print. Toy Story 3. Dir. Lee Unkrich. Perf. Tom Hanks and Tim Allen. Disney/Pixar, 2010. DVD. Toy Story. Dir. John Lasseter. Perf. Tom Hanks and Tim Allen. 1995, .1995. DVD.

Virtue in Several Dialogues

Plato presents Socrates views on the question whether virtue can be taught in several dialogues, most notably in Protagoras and Meno. In Meno Menon puts the question to Socrates this way: â€Å"Can you tell me, Socrates–can virtue be taught? Or if not, does it come by practice? Or does it come neither by practice nor by teaching, but do people get it by nature, or in some other way?† [35]. Socrates claims to not â€Å"know the least little thing about virtue† and unable to speak as to its qualities. Moreover, he claims to know no one that does. [29]. There follows a discussion as to whether Gorgias, the Sophist, might not be such a person. Both Socrates and Menon know Gorgias' teaching. Menon obviously has a higher opinion of Gorgias' teaching than does Socrates. It is agreed, upon Socrates suggestion, that the conversation should proceed to explore what Menon, not Gorgias, knows about virtue. And so Socrates, puts the question to Menon: â€Å"[W]hat do you say virtue is?† [29] Menon finds â€Å"nothing difficult† in the question and attempts, forthwith, to answer it. But there are complications with the answer, for Menon has suggested that men, slaves, children, women all demonstrate a different kind of virtue, and concludes that there is a virtue â€Å"for doing each sort of work† associated with being a slave, a child, a woman, a free man. Menon's idea of virtue is what we would call role specific. Socrates attempts to show that Menon's initial answer misses the point because it does not show what is common to the virtues of these various actors. If the virtue of men and women, free men and slaves, does not share something in common then it cannot be said to be the same thing and one would necessarily call the one virtue, and the other something else. As Socrates puts it, â€Å"Even if there are many different kinds of them [virtues], they all have one something, the same in all, which makes them virtues.† [30]. Menon accepts Socrates criticism and argues that it is indeed one thing of which he speaks. In order to determine what the common quality of virtue is, Socrates observes that Menon has associated virtue with the ability to manage public affairs well. Socrates now sets out to question Menon on whether virtue would be present in the management of public affairs in the absence of temperance and justice and Menon readily agrees that it would not. Socrates has already disclaimed any personal knowledge of virtue and he has steered Menon away from a discussion of Gorgias' view of virtue. But when Menon fails to provide a persuasive account of his conception of virtue, Socrates poses a question with substantive content. Socrates may know nothing about virtue, but he knows enough to ask whether virtue can be present without temperance and justice. The question suggest that it is Socrates rather than Menon who knows enough about virtue to keep the conversation going. Socrates interrupts the dialogue to make a brief statement about the conversation he has been having with Menon. He distinguishes the conversation he is having with Menon from those where the questioner is â€Å"one of those clever fellow, who just chop logic and argue to win.† Questions such as the one that Socrates and Menon are discussing — whether virtue can be taught? — are best left, says Socrates, to â€Å"friends† who wish to talk together. In such a relationship argues Socrates, â€Å"I must answer more gently and more like friends talking together; and perhaps it is more like friends talking together, not only to answer with truth, but to use only what the one who is questioned admits that he knows.† [34] Socrates, in rapport with Menon, tries to clear up a possible confusion as to whether it is possible to seek that which is bad. Socrates suggests, as he does in other dialogues, that we â€Å"all desire good things.† Menon has responded to Socrates question by saying that one can desire bad things. Socrates tries to clarify this point by asking whether one desires that which is bad because of a mistake, that it is assumed to be bad. But Menon does not pick up on the point and contends that one desires the bad both as a result of a misplaced assumption as to its value and we can also desire the bad even when it is known to be bad. But upon further questions, Menon agrees with Socrates that no one seeks to inflict injury and misery upon himself, and it is injury and misery that are the results of that which is bad. Socrates summary of their agreement goes like this: â€Å"Then it is plain that those who desire bad things are those who don't know what they are, but they desire what they thought were good whereas they really are bad. . . .† [37] Menon has mentioned in passing that virtue consists of the desire of good things and to provide the good. Menon admits that one good thing it is possible to desire is â€Å"to possess gold and silver and public honour and appointments.† [38]. Socrates inquires now whether the virtue of possession of gold and silver must be qualified so that its possession is fair and just. Menon agrees that it is not a virtue to have such possessions if they have been unjustly acquired. On the contrary it would be a vice. â€Å"It is necessary,† Socrates says, â€Å"to add to this getting, justice or temperance or piety or some other bit of virtue, or else it will not be virtue, although it provides good things.† [39] Socrates rebuffs Menon for trying to talk about virtue by looking at it piece by piece and drawing into the discussion a sense of virtue that he has not yet presented. Menon agrees that it is a problem and comments on his reaction to what has gone on: Well now, my dear Socrates, you are just like what I always heard before I met you: always puzzled yourself and puzzling everybody else. And now you seem to me to be a regular wizard, you dose me with drugs and bewitch me with charms and spells, and drown me in puzzledom. I'll tell you just what you are like, if you will forgive a little jest: your looks and the rest of you are exactly like a flatfish and you sting like this stingray–only go near and touch one of those fish and you go numb, and that is the sort of thing you seem to have done to me. [40] Socrates response to Menon's description of his puzzlement is that he himself is â€Å"not clear-headed† when he puzzles others, and that he is â€Å"as puzzled as puzzled can be, and thus I make others puzzled too.† [41]. And where can the conversation go from here? Socrates says, that he wishes to investigate virtue with Menon's help so â€Å"that we may both try to find out what it is.† [41] Socrates argues that there is no such thing as teaching, only remembering. This notion of teaching comes out of Socrates belief in the immortality of the soul. The soul dies but is reborn and thus never destroyed. (This is given by Socrates as a reason for why â€Å"we must live our lives as much as we can in holiness. . . .†) â€Å"Then, since the soul is immortal and often born, having seen what is on earth and what is in the house of Hades, and everything, there is nothing it has not learnt; so there is no wonder it can remember about virtue and other things, because it knew about these before. For since all nature is akin, and the soul has learnt everything, there is nothing to hinder a man, remembering one thing only–which men call learning–from himself finding out all else, if he is brave and does not weary in seeking; for seeking and learning is all remembrance.† [42] After questioning the slave boy about geometry Socrates seeks Menon's concurrence in the proposition that the boy, shown to have been in error about geometry, is better off now, that he too is numbed but has knowledge about the limits of what he knows. By being numbed by the sting of Socrates' conversation the slave has come a step â€Å"onwards, as it seems, to find out how he stands.† [29]. Menon answers yes, when Socrates asked: â€Å"Then do you think he would have tried to find out or to learn what he thought he knew, not knowing, until he tumbled into difficulty by thinking he did not know, and longed to know?† Menon agrees, that he does not think he would and thus gains from being numbed. Menon takes up again his original question, whether virtue can be taught, or one gets it by nature or in some other way. Socrates agrees to proceed but contends that they need a common ground as neither of them can say at this point what virtue is. Socrates has Menon agree that if virtue is knowledge then it can be taught, and if not a knowledge then it cannot be taught. (Conclusion: All that is taught call be called knowledge.)

Best Journal Article Award Essay

Academic journals are periodicals in which scholarly material relating to a certain academic discipline is published and reviewed. These peer-reviewed periodicals provide a platform through which new topics or ideas pertaining to that particular discipline can be introduced, researched and debated upon. The articles published are details of original research conducted by one or a group of stakeholders, reviews of book publications related to the discipline, and are therefore sometimes commonly referred to as professional magazines. They range from journals of science to applied technology, journalism, social sciences and humanities. In the professional circles, there is a habit of any willing interested party making unsolicited submissions of their research and discoveries, opinions or articles to these professional magazines. Usually, a bench of editors peruses the submitted entries to determine their quality and relevance and therefore choose which entries they are going to publish and those that are going to be published. Once an article has been published, any interested parties are free to respond either in support or criticizing the information published therein. This is what is called peer reviewing (Effs. org, 2009). Reviewing involves the checking of progress on the research of topics published in these professional journals. This process covers progressive research either on a long term or short term depending on the topic concerned. The reason for journal awards is that the prestige of an academic journal’s award establishes itself over time; the dominant academic journals consequently receive the highest number of submissions and are consequently the preferred choice of seeking the relevant information and opinion regarding a certain topical issue. It is for this reason that certain journals dominate over others in terms of relevancy and credibility. For example in the United States of America, the American Historical Review and the Journal of American History have been able to stamp their authority over most of the other related journals. The ranking of journals is based on the prestige derived from their accuracy, relevance and professional reverence of their most frequent contributors. In the fields of technology and applied science, it is easier to establish the top most journals but when it comes to the social sciences, it becomes very hard to rank these journals mostly on account of the diverse nature of the opinions available and the scope of the discipline. The approach used here is estimating the impact factor, that is counting the total number of submissions following the publishing of all particular original submissions and also counting the number of citations based on the publications (Carl, 2000). The duration through which submissions are continually cited, also called the half life, is an important criteria of gauging the impact of a particular journal. In virtually every professional discipline, it is very important that the industry players get a feedback to gauge the standards and the levels of professionally time over time. To increase competitiveness, progress and professional integrity, different foundations have initiated programs of awarding excellence (Clapp, 2003). Individuals who have demonstrated extraordinary professional standards are awarded depending on merit and this acts as a source of motivation to the recipients but also to their competitors and partners to put the specific industry on the course of achieving greater heights. The importance of the media on contemporary society cannot under any circumstances be underestimated. It is the media that is on the forefront of creating awareness on the most relevant topical issues directly affecting people. From politics to the economy, human rights to diseases and education, the influence of the media is the most significant. It is not a surprise that most people base their interpretation of topical issues almost always based on how the media has put the facts on paper (Wheeler, 2009). It is for this reason that there has been a lot of effort geared towards ensuring that the media is impartial, relevant and correct on the issues that are of most significance to society as its role in determining how they are received by society in general is insurmountable. To increase integrity in this important industry, very many civil, corporate, governmental and even private organizations have come up with numerous awards all aimed at rewarding excellence and increasing journalistic standards. Among these, perhaps the most significant is the award gala night organized by the International Centre for Journalists (ICJ). Each and every year, the ICT holds an award dinner in honor of the achievements and feats accomplished by its fellows. These awards honor those journalists who have, for the preceding year, demonstrated an extraordinary commitment to the cause and have exhibited the most commendable professional standards (Mackenzie, 2007). This colorful event brings together those journalism professionals from the United States of America as well as from overseas countries, who have made the headlines, constantly putting their lives and safety on the line to bring in the news as it is from the harshest and most hostile locations around the world. They are a perfect demonstration of a passionate commitment of excellent news collection and pointblank reporting. Another significant excellence award by the journalism industry is held by The Canadian Journalism Foundation. Started just over ten years ago, the Excellence in Journalism Award has continued to gain credibility over the years. It is now one of the most prestigious journalistic awards held annually and is the only award of its kind given to a media organization for exhibiting an overall excellence in journalistic performance (Chism, 2006). The Excellence in Journalism Award aims to recognize an outstanding dedication to the cause of journalism. Sponsored jointly by the Jackman Foundation and the Canadian Journalism Foundation, the Excellence in Journalism Award has the overall objective of embracing and enhancing the social and political ideals of citizenship under a working democratic system, rigor and professionalism in journalistic practice, honesty and independence in ideology, accuracy in information collection and accountability (Fredrick, 1995). The award also rewards initiative and an artistic flair in information presentation and clarity. The excellence in Journalism award has winners in two separate categories. One award is dedicated to small and medium sized media houses from the locality (that is within Canada) and the North American region while the second category is for the large national and international media houses. The next awards are scheduled to be held on the fifth day of March this year. The Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) Journal Awards are the other main journalistic awards. Specifically targeting the radio broadcasting industry, he awards are aimed at recognizing those radio companies that have stood out from among their competitors in terms of successfully using the technology of Radio Frequency Identification. The RIFD journal, to ensure a relevant and trustworthy, has put in place a panel of qualified judges who undertake the work of evaluating all competitors and eventually choosing the winner (Burnett, 2000). The aim of these awards is to encourage the application of the radio frequency identification in radio broadcasting and award the winner in this sector. The RIFD has five distinct award categories fro the best implementers of the radio frequency identification technology, the company that has best used frequency identification to enhance their service and the quality of their service to their clients and a special achievement award (PressRelease. com, 2009). Other influential journals include the Harvard Law Review, The Academy of Management Journal and the American Journal of Sociology for the discipline of Social Sciences, the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences and the Proceedings of the Royal Society and Science in the area of general sciences. In the specific sciences, the leading journals are the Archives of Sexual behavior, Industrial Engineering and Industry Research and the Journal of the American Mathematical Society (Wankat, 2005). The reason why journals hold award giving events is to award leading contributors for their commitment and research in a particular discipline and therefore encouraging research and progress. The prestige of any intellectual society is directly derived from the relevance and applicability of their findings; therefore by awarding leading researchers, there is every potential of encouraging further leaders and nurturing the aspirations of future scholars and therefore ensuring intellectual continuity.